A Full Marks Essay on institutions and audiences
A top B marked essay
A C grade essay
Wednesday 28 March 2012
Tuesday 27 March 2012
Rise of Digital
As far as the major studios and distributors are concerned, digital technology offers great potential to increase profits and dangers in equal measure. Digital distribution will certainly transform the film industry more than any previous technological change since sound. Once it becomes the norm to download film via broadband, the potential for a new form of ‘blanket distribution' is obvious—not only do you no longer need multiple prints, you can also bypass the cinemas (although the big screen offers a separate experience that is likely to remain attractive).
Digital film has the advantage of offering identical versions of the film to each viewer, and this will without doubt save billions of pounds at the distribution phase. Despite the 'hype' over piracy and the digital enabling of this illegal activity, industry commentators believe that one advantage of digital distribution will be control and security, as most piracy is the result of a cinema-goer with a hidden camera distributing a poor quality version of a film to parts of the world where it has not yet been released (because the prints are currently somewhere else). Simultaneous global distribution via the internet will put an end to this 'time gap' and thus its exploitation by pirates. One issue for debate is about the quality of digital movies. Whereas some film makers and critics argue that the 'binary reduction' of images in the digital compression process reduces the complexity of image and light, it appears that just as music in MP3 comes without the parts that the human ear cannot hear, so digital films remove the degrees of texture that most viewers wouldn't notice anyway.
Digital film has the advantage of offering identical versions of the film to each viewer, and this will without doubt save billions of pounds at the distribution phase. Despite the 'hype' over piracy and the digital enabling of this illegal activity, industry commentators believe that one advantage of digital distribution will be control and security, as most piracy is the result of a cinema-goer with a hidden camera distributing a poor quality version of a film to parts of the world where it has not yet been released (because the prints are currently somewhere else). Simultaneous global distribution via the internet will put an end to this 'time gap' and thus its exploitation by pirates. One issue for debate is about the quality of digital movies. Whereas some film makers and critics argue that the 'binary reduction' of images in the digital compression process reduces the complexity of image and light, it appears that just as music in MP3 comes without the parts that the human ear cannot hear, so digital films remove the degrees of texture that most viewers wouldn't notice anyway.
Digital Technology
As with all media, any attempt to ignore the fast approaching world of legal film downloading is seen as 'swimming against the tide'. Piracy is a major concern of all film distributors, with Hollywood investigators claiming a 10 per cent increase each year in revenue lost to illegal distribution. In the UK the Film Council's report Film Theft in the UK (2004) claimed that only Austria and Germany have a higher degree of DVD piracy.
The industry's recommendations include a strategy for responding to internet distribution opportunities, and for working with other media and communications industries. Ultimately the report sought to remind the public that small production companies are actually hurt more by piracy than multinational conglomerates, as they cannot bear the impact with already acquired capital. Another aspect of technological change that the Film Council is concerned with is digital filming and projection. The Digital Screen Network project is the Film Council's attempt to provide cinemas with digital projection facilities, and it is hoped (but by no means guaranteed) that more small-scale independent films will get seen this way.
At the other end of the 'food chain', digital technology has made life a lot better for low budget film makers and distributor-In the case of short films, it is now possible for these to reach a potentially wide audience via a range of hosts, from the UK Film Council to The UK Media Desk, BBC Film Network and Big Film Shorts, Film London's Pulse and a host of short film festivals, all of whom have online submission.
The industry's recommendations include a strategy for responding to internet distribution opportunities, and for working with other media and communications industries. Ultimately the report sought to remind the public that small production companies are actually hurt more by piracy than multinational conglomerates, as they cannot bear the impact with already acquired capital. Another aspect of technological change that the Film Council is concerned with is digital filming and projection. The Digital Screen Network project is the Film Council's attempt to provide cinemas with digital projection facilities, and it is hoped (but by no means guaranteed) that more small-scale independent films will get seen this way.
At the other end of the 'food chain', digital technology has made life a lot better for low budget film makers and distributor-In the case of short films, it is now possible for these to reach a potentially wide audience via a range of hosts, from the UK Film Council to The UK Media Desk, BBC Film Network and Big Film Shorts, Film London's Pulse and a host of short film festivals, all of whom have online submission.
Slumdog Millionaire
- It's already the most talked-about film of the year – and it's set to sweep the Oscar nominations tomorrow. But there's a lot that went on behind the scenes. Tim Walker has the lowdown
- 'Slumdog Millionaire' was all set to go straight to DVD after the film's original studio backer, Warner Independent (a division of Warner Brothers), closed down in May 2008. Luckily, the Fox studio's indie film division, Fox Searchlight, picked it up for theatrical release.
- During filming, Azza, the Mumbai boy who was cast as Jamal's brother Salim, had his house bulldozed by the city council – a common occurrence in the slums where much of the shoot took place. The crew found him sleeping on a car roof.
- The three youngest child leads, who were all cast from the Mumbai slums, are now having their schooling funded by the film's producers. With the promise of a trust fund should they pass their exams at 16.
- Anil Kapoor, who plays Prem Kumar, the host of 'Who Wants to be a Millionaire?' in 'Slumdog', donated his fee to Plan India, a child development NGO in Delhi, devoted to raising awareness about child abuse, trafficking, education and rehabilitating deprived children.
- Kapoor has starred in almost 100 Bollywood films. The real Indian version of the gameshow, 'Kaun Banega Crorepati', has been presented by two of his fellow Bollywood superstars, Amitabh Bachchan (who also features in 'Slumdog' as young Jamal's celebrity obsession) and Shahrukh Khan. Khan turned down the role of Prem in 'Slumdog' after deciding that the character was too negative.
- Director Danny Boyle almost didn't film the now-famous lavatory scene, in which young Jamal crawls through a cesspit to get an autographed photo of his favourite star, because it was too similar to a scene in 'Trainspotting' (1996), in which Ewan McGregor climbs into a loo to retrieve opium suppositories.
- Lead actor Dev Patel's 'Slumdog' audition was only his second ever. His first was for Channel 4's teen series 'Skins', where Boyle's teenage daughter Caitlin talent-spotted him for the role of Jamal. Last week, he was nominated for a Bafta for best actor. Not bad going.
- Bollywood composer AR Rahman, who wrote the score for 'Slumdog', has worked on British productions before. He composed music for 'Elizabeth: The Golden Age' (2007), and in 2002, he composed the musical 'Bombay Dreams'.
- Boyle was slightly uncomfortable with the film's marketing campaign, which features posters of the two leads grinning in a shower of confetti with a quote calling it the "feel-good film of the decade". Considering that the film features poverty, torture and murder, says Boyle, "You can't go in expecting it to be 'Mamma Mia!'"
- The budget for 'Slumdog' was the smallest of all the nominees for the Golden Globe 2009 award for Best Picture – Drama, which it won. 'Frost/Nixon' cost $25m, 'The Reader' $33m, 'Revolutionary Road' $35m and 'The Curious Case of Benjamin Button' a whopping $150m, 10 times Slumdog's $15m.
- Mercedes-Benz asked for its logo to be removed from any scenes shot in the slums. According to Danny Boyle, the car-maker feared that such an association with a poverty-stricken area would dent its image as a luxury brand.
- Two of the film's climactic scenes were shot in the Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus station, which was formerly Victoria Terminus, and is commonly called Bombay VT station. It is the scene of one of the terrorist attacks that took place in Mumbai on 26 November; a pair of gunmen killed more than 50 people in the passenger hall. Boyle now says he believed "you should never talk about the film in terms of the attacks, because one's an entertainment and the other is a tragedy. But the scene in the station [is one] of unapologetic romantic love... It's utterly naive, and it says love conquers all. And [I'm] proud of that. It's unintentional, obviously. But it was the best thing I could possibly say."
- The scene in which Jamal is tortured was meant to be funny, says Boyle. "[It] was written as comedy, which is how I thought I'd directed it. When the scene plays in the West, everybody thinks it's about Guantanamo, but in India torture is accepted as part of the culture, like bribery." Sergeant Srinivas, the police officer, is played by the Indian actor, writer and director Saurabh Shukla.
- Simon Beaufoy, who adapted the screenplay for 'Slumdog' from the novel 'Q&A' by Vikas Swarup, made three research trips to India to interview street children. He says he wanted to convey the slums' "sense of this huge amount of fun, laughter, chat, and sense of community". Boyle wasn't interested in directing a script about 'Who Wants to be a Millionaire?' until he heard it had been written by Beaufoy (who also wrote 'The Full Monty').
- One of the film's opening scenes is a chase through Mumbai's Dharavi slum – the largest slum in Asia. Boyle says it was based on a 12-minute police chase in the Indian film 'Black Friday', about the 1993 Bombay bombings. One of his other reference points was 'Satya', a 1998 film about the Mumbai underworld, written by Saurabh Shukla (who plays Sergeant Srinivas in Slumdog)
- Boyle "fibbed" to his US producers that he wanted to translate about 10 per cent of the dialogue for 'Slumdog' into Hindi, then translated almost a third of the script.
- 'Slumdog' will be released in India on Friday. The film has not been universally praised by Indians. A debate started by commentators on Bollywood star Amitabh Bachchan's blog included criticism of the film's depiction of India as a "Third World dirty underbelly developing nation".
Paragraphs and Paragraph Structure
The influence of the internet has been substantial on the British Film Industry, particularly in the area of marketing. The availability of youtube has led to a cheaper way of marketing by independent companies for example Warp Films and Film4 promoted much of Four Lions on youtube in conjunction with their distributor Optimum Releasing; this included cut scenes, teasers and trailers. The teaser scenes themselves were also the sections of the film filmed using a hand-held camera and therefore fitted in with the youtube ‘do-it-yourself’ philosophy. This was beneficial to Film4 and Warp as the controversial nature of the film meant that a large portion of it’s success came form word of mouth advertising.
POINT, CASE STUDY, ANALYSIS, EVALUATION
E.g. What, Where, Why, So?
POINT, CASE STUDY, ANALYSIS, EVALUATION
E.g. What, Where, Why, So?
Exam Tips
AS Level Media G322: Section B:
Institutions and Audiences
Tips on how to write a good answer for this part of the exam….
1. Link your response to the question:
e.g. ‘Another key issue is the power of institutions and critics, such as the Academy of Motion Picture Arts & Sciences, to influence and preside over what the film audiences go to see at the cinema.’
2. Debate & weigh up both sides of the argument:
e.g. ‘However’, ‘having said this’, ‘an exception to this is the film……..released in……..’
3. Explain which industries/ institutions you are going to discuss:
e.g. ‘Issues faced by the British film production company Thin Man Films, set up in…….. by …………., are that it………’
4. You must refer in depth to your case study, including the other companies linked with Film4
Celador
Fox Searchlight (part of NewsCorp)
Pathe
Warp Films
Optimum Releasing
5. You must mention a variety of different films to support your points/ ideas:
Slumdog Millionaire
Four Lions
On a lesser basis – Avatar, Charlotte Gray, King’s Speech, Transpotting, Brass Eye (TV)
6. Mention specific audiences and how they are targeted
-through age/ gender/ time era/ taste/ lifestyle/ location
-do British audiences prefer British films? Is this a misconception?
Mention the threat of Digital Cinema to all institutions:
o Growth of internet
o Downloading/ live streaming/ file sharing
o Piracy
o DVD sales
o Cost/ inflation/ credit crunch
o IMAX cinema/ digital reels
Engrain your essay with your own point of view and ideas.
Institutions and Audiences
Tips on how to write a good answer for this part of the exam….
1. Link your response to the question:
e.g. ‘Another key issue is the power of institutions and critics, such as the Academy of Motion Picture Arts & Sciences, to influence and preside over what the film audiences go to see at the cinema.’
2. Debate & weigh up both sides of the argument:
e.g. ‘However’, ‘having said this’, ‘an exception to this is the film……..released in……..’
3. Explain which industries/ institutions you are going to discuss:
e.g. ‘Issues faced by the British film production company Thin Man Films, set up in…….. by …………., are that it………’
4. You must refer in depth to your case study, including the other companies linked with Film4
Celador
Fox Searchlight (part of NewsCorp)
Pathe
Warp Films
Optimum Releasing
5. You must mention a variety of different films to support your points/ ideas:
Slumdog Millionaire
Four Lions
On a lesser basis – Avatar, Charlotte Gray, King’s Speech, Transpotting, Brass Eye (TV)
6. Mention specific audiences and how they are targeted
-through age/ gender/ time era/ taste/ lifestyle/ location
-do British audiences prefer British films? Is this a misconception?
Mention the threat of Digital Cinema to all institutions:
o Growth of internet
o Downloading/ live streaming/ file sharing
o Piracy
o DVD sales
o Cost/ inflation/ credit crunch
o IMAX cinema/ digital reels
Engrain your essay with your own point of view and ideas.
Distribution
Distribution
A distributor can help market and generate sales for your film.
What is a Distributor?
In terms of shorts, a distributor is an individual or organisation who will represent your film at festivals and markets around the world and who will attempt to sell it to television (including terrestrial, cable and satellite), airlines and other companies that show short films. The major short film distributors in the UK are (in alphabetical order): Dazzle, Futureshorts, Network Ireland TV and Shorts International.
In terms of features, a distributor is generally an organisation who handles the theatrical release of a film in a particular country as well as the marketing and circulation of films for home viewing (DVD, Video-On-Demand, Download, Television etc). Often feature films have different distributors representing them in different territories and different distributors handling the home-viewing circulation. Independent film distribution in the UK is generally managed by indie distributors such as Metrodome, Optimum Releasing and Momentum.
Distributors will source new films to represent in their distribution catalogue at film festivals and markets around the world such as Cannes, Rotterdam, Berlinale, AFM and Sundance festivals (features) and Clermont-Ferrand, Tampere, Encounters and Toronto Worldwide Short Film Festival (shorts).
Although they may be interested in unsolicited submissions or work in progress, the majority of films that distributors acquire, are completed films sourced at film festivals and related markets. Having said that if your film hasn't been picked up on the festival circuit it is worth making contact with distribution companies and forwarding a DVD copy of your short film or emailing a link to your film online to see if they are interested and if so what they offer you in terms of a deal.
For a film to be distributable, you will need to make sure you have all the right assets in place.
As well as assets, distributors will require a clear paper chain - clear contracts and license deals so that they know that you are legally allowed to sell all the different elements of your film on to a third party.
Distribution Deals
It is up to you to negotiate the rights a distributor will acquire in your film i.e. you may want to hold back distribution rights in certain territories. If you conclude a deal it should be formalised in a written distribution agreement. Some clauses to look out for are:
Territory: this specifies the countries in which the film can be distributed by the distributor.
Term: this sets out the period of time the distributor will hold distribution rights in the film.
Rights granted: the agreement should distinguish between the media rights granted to the distributor (theatrical, video and DVD, television rights etc.) and those media rights which are reserved to the producer e.g. radio rights. You should determine whether the rights granted are exclusive or non-exclusive. If you agree to exclusive rights, it will stop you allowing others to show your film within the specified media/territory/term.
Producer's warranties and representations: the producer will be asked to provide assurances that there is no infringement of copyright.
Gross receipts: this means all monies actually received by the distributor from the exploitation of the film before any deductions have been made.
Net proceeds: this is the amount payable to the producer from the proceeds derived from the exploitation of the film after costs incurred by the distributor have been deducted. Costs can include distributor fees, commission and expenses.
Expense caps: there should be expense caps in order to prevent the distributor claiming unreasonable amounts, which would reduce the amount left for the producer to recoup.
Distributor's obligations: Distributors should use their best efforts to realise gross receipts from marketing and exploitation of the film.
Accounting: The distributor should be under obligations to maintain accurate and true records of sales and expenditure and the producer should have the right to receive regular accounting statements on the film.
Termination: You should pay special attention to the circumstances in which you can terminate the relationship with the distributor. If your distribution agreement is for a long period of time and a better deal comes along during that period, the wording of such a clause will often determine as to whether you can end the existing agreement.
One of the best ways to be clear on what is a good deal is to talk to other short filmmakers about their experiences. If you are still not sure, you can get advice from your regional screen agency.
The best policy is not to sign any agreement that you don't fully understand until you are clear about all of the terms. There are plenty of people who can offer advice to help you along the way towards the successful distribution of your short film.
Distributors generally offer a percentage royalties on any sales made, which should be net after any marketing, production and promotional costs the distributor incurs from the film's release. They almost always want exclusive rights to sell the film in the selected territories, so that they effectively manage the film's commercial life within that territory. One film may have several distributors, specific to each territory, so that a local marketing campaign and versioning is ensured. The deal also could include an advance fee on any sales the distributor makes, which is then recouped later on future sales.
Sales Agents
More rarely, both short and feature films can benefit from the skills of a Sales Agent, who works on selling a smaller range of films on behalf of the film's rights holder / producer. Agents are responsible for setting up the deals, but do not necessarily deal with all the contracts paperwork, taking a percentage fee from any sales that arise from their work. They tend to take slightly lower fees than distributors as they do not have such large overheads and provide no guarantees of sales. However you may need to pay them a retainer until they achieve a sale. They can also be responsible for setting up deals with film distributors per territory. Talent Agents can also act as Sales Agents.
In the case of short films, sales agents often do the same role as distributors.
Sales & Income
It is very rare to make a profit on selling a short film. It is not a good idea to overspend on budget with the hope that you will get it back afterwards from selling the film. You probably won't. Short film distributors tend to sell films in packages to make their profit margins sustainable, with a slant on high production values, romance /comedy / drama genres and avoidance of overly ‘adult' themes. However, if you are interested in getting your short on TV across the world, on seatback airplane TVs, and on iTunes, distributors have the right contacts and will do the heavy, complicated paperwork it takes to achieve this.
TV license fees tend to pay per minute, ranging from 50EURO to 250EURO per minute. Clearly, this means longer films make more money, but most broadcasters will not license a film that is over 15 minutes long. More active buyers will attend film festivals in order to source new films for their channel, so it is possible, if bureaucratic, to sell shorts directly to TV channels.
Withholding Tax on Licensed Films
It is worth noting that countries outside of the UK, including the EU member states and the USA, can legally withhold up to 40% of the due license fee as withholding tax, until you are able to provide the Licensee with a Certificate of Residency from your local tax office, where your company is registered. If you do not have a registered company, you will not be able to avoid the tax. The certificate changes annually and is needed in order to prove that your main business takes place in the UK, not from an overseas office. If you have a distributor, they will be able to deal with this for you, as they will have submitted annual Certificates of Residency to each international Licensee / Broadcaster.
In the USA you will also need to register for an UIN (Unique Identification Number) and fill out the W1/BEN form from the Inland Revenue in the USA to avoid additional taxation.
A distributor can help market and generate sales for your film.
What is a Distributor?
In terms of shorts, a distributor is an individual or organisation who will represent your film at festivals and markets around the world and who will attempt to sell it to television (including terrestrial, cable and satellite), airlines and other companies that show short films. The major short film distributors in the UK are (in alphabetical order): Dazzle, Futureshorts, Network Ireland TV and Shorts International.
In terms of features, a distributor is generally an organisation who handles the theatrical release of a film in a particular country as well as the marketing and circulation of films for home viewing (DVD, Video-On-Demand, Download, Television etc). Often feature films have different distributors representing them in different territories and different distributors handling the home-viewing circulation. Independent film distribution in the UK is generally managed by indie distributors such as Metrodome, Optimum Releasing and Momentum.
Distributors will source new films to represent in their distribution catalogue at film festivals and markets around the world such as Cannes, Rotterdam, Berlinale, AFM and Sundance festivals (features) and Clermont-Ferrand, Tampere, Encounters and Toronto Worldwide Short Film Festival (shorts).
Although they may be interested in unsolicited submissions or work in progress, the majority of films that distributors acquire, are completed films sourced at film festivals and related markets. Having said that if your film hasn't been picked up on the festival circuit it is worth making contact with distribution companies and forwarding a DVD copy of your short film or emailing a link to your film online to see if they are interested and if so what they offer you in terms of a deal.
For a film to be distributable, you will need to make sure you have all the right assets in place.
As well as assets, distributors will require a clear paper chain - clear contracts and license deals so that they know that you are legally allowed to sell all the different elements of your film on to a third party.
Distribution Deals
It is up to you to negotiate the rights a distributor will acquire in your film i.e. you may want to hold back distribution rights in certain territories. If you conclude a deal it should be formalised in a written distribution agreement. Some clauses to look out for are:
Territory: this specifies the countries in which the film can be distributed by the distributor.
Term: this sets out the period of time the distributor will hold distribution rights in the film.
Rights granted: the agreement should distinguish between the media rights granted to the distributor (theatrical, video and DVD, television rights etc.) and those media rights which are reserved to the producer e.g. radio rights. You should determine whether the rights granted are exclusive or non-exclusive. If you agree to exclusive rights, it will stop you allowing others to show your film within the specified media/territory/term.
Producer's warranties and representations: the producer will be asked to provide assurances that there is no infringement of copyright.
Gross receipts: this means all monies actually received by the distributor from the exploitation of the film before any deductions have been made.
Net proceeds: this is the amount payable to the producer from the proceeds derived from the exploitation of the film after costs incurred by the distributor have been deducted. Costs can include distributor fees, commission and expenses.
Expense caps: there should be expense caps in order to prevent the distributor claiming unreasonable amounts, which would reduce the amount left for the producer to recoup.
Distributor's obligations: Distributors should use their best efforts to realise gross receipts from marketing and exploitation of the film.
Accounting: The distributor should be under obligations to maintain accurate and true records of sales and expenditure and the producer should have the right to receive regular accounting statements on the film.
Termination: You should pay special attention to the circumstances in which you can terminate the relationship with the distributor. If your distribution agreement is for a long period of time and a better deal comes along during that period, the wording of such a clause will often determine as to whether you can end the existing agreement.
One of the best ways to be clear on what is a good deal is to talk to other short filmmakers about their experiences. If you are still not sure, you can get advice from your regional screen agency.
The best policy is not to sign any agreement that you don't fully understand until you are clear about all of the terms. There are plenty of people who can offer advice to help you along the way towards the successful distribution of your short film.
Distributors generally offer a percentage royalties on any sales made, which should be net after any marketing, production and promotional costs the distributor incurs from the film's release. They almost always want exclusive rights to sell the film in the selected territories, so that they effectively manage the film's commercial life within that territory. One film may have several distributors, specific to each territory, so that a local marketing campaign and versioning is ensured. The deal also could include an advance fee on any sales the distributor makes, which is then recouped later on future sales.
Sales Agents
More rarely, both short and feature films can benefit from the skills of a Sales Agent, who works on selling a smaller range of films on behalf of the film's rights holder / producer. Agents are responsible for setting up the deals, but do not necessarily deal with all the contracts paperwork, taking a percentage fee from any sales that arise from their work. They tend to take slightly lower fees than distributors as they do not have such large overheads and provide no guarantees of sales. However you may need to pay them a retainer until they achieve a sale. They can also be responsible for setting up deals with film distributors per territory. Talent Agents can also act as Sales Agents.
In the case of short films, sales agents often do the same role as distributors.
Sales & Income
It is very rare to make a profit on selling a short film. It is not a good idea to overspend on budget with the hope that you will get it back afterwards from selling the film. You probably won't. Short film distributors tend to sell films in packages to make their profit margins sustainable, with a slant on high production values, romance /comedy / drama genres and avoidance of overly ‘adult' themes. However, if you are interested in getting your short on TV across the world, on seatback airplane TVs, and on iTunes, distributors have the right contacts and will do the heavy, complicated paperwork it takes to achieve this.
TV license fees tend to pay per minute, ranging from 50EURO to 250EURO per minute. Clearly, this means longer films make more money, but most broadcasters will not license a film that is over 15 minutes long. More active buyers will attend film festivals in order to source new films for their channel, so it is possible, if bureaucratic, to sell shorts directly to TV channels.
Withholding Tax on Licensed Films
It is worth noting that countries outside of the UK, including the EU member states and the USA, can legally withhold up to 40% of the due license fee as withholding tax, until you are able to provide the Licensee with a Certificate of Residency from your local tax office, where your company is registered. If you do not have a registered company, you will not be able to avoid the tax. The certificate changes annually and is needed in order to prove that your main business takes place in the UK, not from an overseas office. If you have a distributor, they will be able to deal with this for you, as they will have submitted annual Certificates of Residency to each international Licensee / Broadcaster.
In the USA you will also need to register for an UIN (Unique Identification Number) and fill out the W1/BEN form from the Inland Revenue in the USA to avoid additional taxation.
Audiences
The concept includes a consideration of how audiences read texts and how they
interact with them. Media audiences can be defined in terms of location,
consumption, size and subjectivity.
• Location – the domestic consumption of media output raises questions about
regulation and control.
• Consumption – Audiences are defined by what they consume i.e. are they an
audience of a particular genre, medium or text. Fans can be defined as
passionate/ well informed about a programme
• Size – there is a need to distinguish between mass audiences that are
broadcast to and niche audiences who are involved in narrowcasting.
• Subjectivity – The impact that membership of pre‐existing groups will have
on audience members. These groups include: gender, nation, religion,
education, to name but a few.
interact with them. Media audiences can be defined in terms of location,
consumption, size and subjectivity.
• Location – the domestic consumption of media output raises questions about
regulation and control.
• Consumption – Audiences are defined by what they consume i.e. are they an
audience of a particular genre, medium or text. Fans can be defined as
passionate/ well informed about a programme
• Size – there is a need to distinguish between mass audiences that are
broadcast to and niche audiences who are involved in narrowcasting.
• Subjectivity – The impact that membership of pre‐existing groups will have
on audience members. These groups include: gender, nation, religion,
education, to name but a few.
Examiner's Report 2010
Question 2
This question covered a pleasing variety of case studies, with lots of focus on the areas of Institutions and Audiences. Most pleasingly, these concepts were identified by the vast majority of Candidates as being strongly linked rather than discussed as separate entities. Also pleasing was the fact that only a minority of Candidates chose to ignore the question and present a prepared answer. Terminology was well utilised across all media.
Appropriate differentiation was achieved in the marks for Section B through the detail in which the argument was explored and the detail to the exemplification. The question provoked a range of responses from Candidates who were able to discuss the use of digital technology in the production, distribution, marketing or consumption of media products or a combination of these elements. The most able Candidates were able to create a debate around the benefits and drawbacks of new technology for both audiences and institutions and were also able to draw contrasts between mainstream and independent producers, or mass audience/niche audience targeting.
The best answers tended to come from Candidates who had been well prepared with detailed, contemporary case studies – not historical ones. Many Candidates were able to build their own experiences as consumers (and occasionally producers) into their responses and were able to contextualise these through wider understanding of the relationships between producers and audiences. More able Candidates are able to show awareness of the trends and strategies that characterise the contemporary media landscape and at times across different media areas.
However, there are still a number of Centres who are preparing Candidates with inappropriate material, for example with potted histories of media companies or textual studies which are unlikely to be useful for the kind of questions which this paper poses. Candidates should be encouraged to take a selective approach to their case study material, concentrating on what is most relevant to the question rather than trying to get entire case studies down into the response to question 2.
Film
The most common approach was to compare major US studios with UK production companies, though technology at times was often interpreted in quite a narrow fashion, concentrating on 3D production and digital distribution, for example ‘The Dark Knight’ and ‘Avatar’. Some good answers focussed on how major studios like Fox can finance the production of cutting edge films like ‘Avatar’, and how the technology they have at their range of relevant examples. The digital technology used in ‘Avatar’ was succinctly addressed as were the advances in 3D, but also characterised by some simplistic assumptions that digital distribution is cheaper and quicker than conventional film distribution because you do not need reels of film. There was often an assumption that UK cinema is not dependent upon technological advances, which obviously underestimates the importance of home exhibition windows in making UK film viable.
Working Title was the most frequently used UK case study, though many Candidates tended to offer a history of the company and their argument depended upon the relative of success of films such as ‘Four Weddings and A Funeral’, ‘Notting Hill’ or ‘The Hudsucker Proxy’, which clearly are not contemporary examples. Warners, Fox and Paramount were frequently used as US examples; Warp, Vertigo and Film Four were used a number of times as UK production companies. One Centre’s Candidates had been prepared with a comparative textual study of ‘The Cruel Sea’ (1953) and ‘Atonement’ (2007) with which they struggled to answer the question.
Histories of film studios such as Aardman or film biographies of film personnel did not address the question that has been set. Centres should keep taught examples contemporary and varied for the Candidates for future series. There was evidence that a number of Candidates focused solely on digitisation of cinema and did not have a film company as an institutional case study. Where this was the case, answers (whilst detailed in some respects) did not show enough depth, as they were tackling only exhibition.
This question covered a pleasing variety of case studies, with lots of focus on the areas of Institutions and Audiences. Most pleasingly, these concepts were identified by the vast majority of Candidates as being strongly linked rather than discussed as separate entities. Also pleasing was the fact that only a minority of Candidates chose to ignore the question and present a prepared answer. Terminology was well utilised across all media.
Appropriate differentiation was achieved in the marks for Section B through the detail in which the argument was explored and the detail to the exemplification. The question provoked a range of responses from Candidates who were able to discuss the use of digital technology in the production, distribution, marketing or consumption of media products or a combination of these elements. The most able Candidates were able to create a debate around the benefits and drawbacks of new technology for both audiences and institutions and were also able to draw contrasts between mainstream and independent producers, or mass audience/niche audience targeting.
The best answers tended to come from Candidates who had been well prepared with detailed, contemporary case studies – not historical ones. Many Candidates were able to build their own experiences as consumers (and occasionally producers) into their responses and were able to contextualise these through wider understanding of the relationships between producers and audiences. More able Candidates are able to show awareness of the trends and strategies that characterise the contemporary media landscape and at times across different media areas.
However, there are still a number of Centres who are preparing Candidates with inappropriate material, for example with potted histories of media companies or textual studies which are unlikely to be useful for the kind of questions which this paper poses. Candidates should be encouraged to take a selective approach to their case study material, concentrating on what is most relevant to the question rather than trying to get entire case studies down into the response to question 2.
Film
The most common approach was to compare major US studios with UK production companies, though technology at times was often interpreted in quite a narrow fashion, concentrating on 3D production and digital distribution, for example ‘The Dark Knight’ and ‘Avatar’. Some good answers focussed on how major studios like Fox can finance the production of cutting edge films like ‘Avatar’, and how the technology they have at their range of relevant examples. The digital technology used in ‘Avatar’ was succinctly addressed as were the advances in 3D, but also characterised by some simplistic assumptions that digital distribution is cheaper and quicker than conventional film distribution because you do not need reels of film. There was often an assumption that UK cinema is not dependent upon technological advances, which obviously underestimates the importance of home exhibition windows in making UK film viable.
Working Title was the most frequently used UK case study, though many Candidates tended to offer a history of the company and their argument depended upon the relative of success of films such as ‘Four Weddings and A Funeral’, ‘Notting Hill’ or ‘The Hudsucker Proxy’, which clearly are not contemporary examples. Warners, Fox and Paramount were frequently used as US examples; Warp, Vertigo and Film Four were used a number of times as UK production companies. One Centre’s Candidates had been prepared with a comparative textual study of ‘The Cruel Sea’ (1953) and ‘Atonement’ (2007) with which they struggled to answer the question.
Histories of film studios such as Aardman or film biographies of film personnel did not address the question that has been set. Centres should keep taught examples contemporary and varied for the Candidates for future series. There was evidence that a number of Candidates focused solely on digitisation of cinema and did not have a film company as an institutional case study. Where this was the case, answers (whilst detailed in some respects) did not show enough depth, as they were tackling only exhibition.
Past Questions
From Jun 2010:
What significance does the continuing development of digital media have for media institutions and audiences?
From January 2010:
'Media Production is dominated by global institutions, which sell their products and services to national audiences.' To what extent do you agree with this statement?
From June 2009:
How important is technological convergence for institutions and audiences within a media area which you have studied?
From January 2009:
Discuss the ways in which media products are produced and distributed to audiences, within a media area which you have studied.
Institutions and Audiences Topic List
- BIGGEST ONE Understand how all aspects of the media (websites, newspapers, television etc) are used to market a film and show you understand how companies work together to produce and distribute (and market) films.
- How film4 works with different companies and what those companies are
- What synergy is and how all the companies in your case studies make use of it and why they do
- Who are young bwark and why are they important.
- How your production companies have changed their production styles and methods of making films and why.
- How Film4 works as a company and its links to C4 – the particulars of the remit and it’s history
- The involvement of large non-British conglomerates in British companies and works and whether this is a benefit or a hindrance.
- How media convergence has affected your production companies (Warp, Celador and Film4)
- How changes in exhibition (all avenues including cinema, dvd, internet etc) have affected your companies?
- The rise of new media and how your companies have dealt with it – issues and benefits.
- The success of the smaller independent company and maintaining independence (and whether this is a good thing or a bad thing)
- How audiences respond to the products made by your companies and the different levels and types of audience (ages, classes etc)
- What has happened to Celador Productions and Warp Films recently.
- How your production companies have dealt with the rise of the internet.
- The conglomerates involved with all three films for all their aspects.
- How audience’s consumption of media has changed and how technological changes have impact on this (considering the home market as well as the cinemas)
- The different types of marketing used for both Four Lions and Slumdog Millionaire and the different types of advertising.
- How technological improvements have impacted the viewing experience, at home and in the cinema.
- How the increase and improvements made in technology are affecting the ways that films are made and distributed.
- How global institutions target national audiences.
- Why both films are considered successful.
Compulsion - TV Drama Question
Discuss the ways in which the extract constructs the representation of ethnicity using the following:
Camera
Editing
Mise En Scene
Sound
TV Drama Clips
Discuss the ways in which the extract constructs the representation of gender using the following:
Camera
Editing
Mise En Scene
Sound
Wednesday 21 March 2012
Tuesday 20 March 2012
Seven Areas - Possible Points
1. The issues raised by media ownership in contemporary media practice.
- Move to large media conglomerates makes it more difficult for a smaller company to gain a foothold
- Smaller companies often are bought out by bigger companies – the conglomerate has subsidiary companies to help market their product
- Emergence of horizontal integration – companies having interest in cross-media platforms
- Vertical integration and concentration of media ownership means that smaller productions cannot avoid conglomerates if they want consumption to occur.
- Smaller companies do not have vertical integration and so need to seek others means e.g. – independent companies, television companies, government bodies, co-production agreements
- American companies can create a conflict of interest with a British company – companies may need to use synergy – are any products truly “independent”?
- Lack of ownership/control over social media makes it difficult to control success of media products
- Move to more ‘cult’ products and niche market mean that those companies are having success
- Exhibition ownership means that film releases need to be negotiated with – certain times of the year make it difficult for certain scenes
2. The importance of cross media convergence and synergy in production, distribution and marketing.
- Channel 4’s ownership of different media platform-based companies make it easier to produce, distribute and market films/productions.
- Issues with synergy and needing to get other companies involved
- The impact of increased media availability to consumers means that companies have to diversify their product (e.g. film4 channeling their production on Film4 on demand)
- The target audience’s own preferences of marketing channels and consumption channels
- Issue of piracy and ease of copying.
- Cross-media convergence makes it easier to start marketing earlier.
- Distribution now happens across many platforms and styles which means more potential viewers but also means more cost.
3. The technologies that have been produced in recent years at the levels of production, distribution, marketing and exchange.
- New technology increases the availability of the product on different platforms for greater ways of consumption
- Allow for essentially four releases of the same product (cinema, DVD, Blu-ray and streaming)
- In principle it is cheaper – more commercially available products and different consumption products makes the cost of making media products cheaper (e.g. warp films)
- In production there is a variety of products now to make filming easier and better quality – the influx of HD cameras make professional looking shots for a cheaper price and the SI-2K camera allows for more authentic filming on location instead of studio-based (film4 does social realism well), equally the availability of editing device such as the ipad and available software such as adobe premiere and final cut have made editing on the go far easier and made marketing more commercially available as “sneak peeks” can be released in advance.
- In distribution, the majority of films are made in digital which makes the distribution of many products far easier as a digital copy can be made instead of a reel – easier for global release, easier to encrypt the data.
- Conversion of digital screens
4. The significance of the proliferation of hardware and content for institutions and audiences.
- The improvements in technology have meant as less clear audience consumption rate – for every box office ticket counted, it is harder to see where the other copies are being consumed.
- The impact of having the same product available on several different platforms means easier consumption but less easier to judge the amount of viewers.
- Cinema still fronts the majority of new technology e.g. 3D films and markets itself as a ‘viewing experience’ rather than just watching a film. Equally independent cinema are finding other ways of showing media products such as opera, football and theatre.
- People expect to have more of a relationship with their films across media platforms such as trailers, youtube extras, interviews etc – more must now be spent on marketing – Dyer’s star theory – audience want to know their actors
- Portable devices now means media consumption can happen anywhere to anyone – difficult to judge
- Consumers can do have more control of what, when and how they consume their media – which means producers have to work harder to gain audiences and consumption
- Production costs in film budgets are now smaller than distribution/marketing costs as content is prolific but the devices of viewing are just as prolific
- Films are now being made in different style for different genres and different audiences e.g. social realism vs fantastical special effects, realistic animation vs cgi vs hand-drawn animation – long tail theory
5. The importance of technological convergence for institutions and audiences.
- The availability of internet anywhere can now make the making , distribution and maketing of film immediately visible to the consuming audience – facebook, twitter, footage, youtube, trailers etc.
- Companies taking advantage of their other interests to exploit their other products (e.g. film4 and c4 tv shows/films cross pollination)
- The importance of online work (streaming, marketing, appeal to audience through email/social network)
- The ability of new technological device to perform multiple tasks which make the making of media products faster, more accessible and
- These devices also make it easier to update audiences on the progress of the film and generate more hyper and appeal.
6. The issues raised in the targeting of national and local audiences (specifically British) by international or global institutions
- A more diversified audience now means more diversified films – look at the different markets film4 goes for.
- British films often have difficulty in American markets due to content or approach
- Now more of a ‘global’ market
- Dominance of American companies means it is difficult to be independent – relying on independent cinemas to show their product restricts their product to the bigger, student-oriented cities e.g. London, Cambridge etc
- British companies often need synergy to market their product beyond a local audience
- Proliferation of different films for different consumers – long-tail theory – aiming wholly at a niche audience is often more beneficial for a smaller, British company.
- Britain shares language with America – makes it easier for cross pollination, equally Britain and India share cultural apsects
Certain times of the year for showing certain products
- Move to large media conglomerates makes it more difficult for a smaller company to gain a foothold
- Smaller companies often are bought out by bigger companies – the conglomerate has subsidiary companies to help market their product
- Emergence of horizontal integration – companies having interest in cross-media platforms
- Vertical integration and concentration of media ownership means that smaller productions cannot avoid conglomerates if they want consumption to occur.
- Smaller companies do not have vertical integration and so need to seek others means e.g. – independent companies, television companies, government bodies, co-production agreements
- American companies can create a conflict of interest with a British company – companies may need to use synergy – are any products truly “independent”?
- Lack of ownership/control over social media makes it difficult to control success of media products
- Move to more ‘cult’ products and niche market mean that those companies are having success
- Exhibition ownership means that film releases need to be negotiated with – certain times of the year make it difficult for certain scenes
2. The importance of cross media convergence and synergy in production, distribution and marketing.
- Channel 4’s ownership of different media platform-based companies make it easier to produce, distribute and market films/productions.
- Issues with synergy and needing to get other companies involved
- The impact of increased media availability to consumers means that companies have to diversify their product (e.g. film4 channeling their production on Film4 on demand)
- The target audience’s own preferences of marketing channels and consumption channels
- Issue of piracy and ease of copying.
- Cross-media convergence makes it easier to start marketing earlier.
- Distribution now happens across many platforms and styles which means more potential viewers but also means more cost.
3. The technologies that have been produced in recent years at the levels of production, distribution, marketing and exchange.
- New technology increases the availability of the product on different platforms for greater ways of consumption
- Allow for essentially four releases of the same product (cinema, DVD, Blu-ray and streaming)
- In principle it is cheaper – more commercially available products and different consumption products makes the cost of making media products cheaper (e.g. warp films)
- In production there is a variety of products now to make filming easier and better quality – the influx of HD cameras make professional looking shots for a cheaper price and the SI-2K camera allows for more authentic filming on location instead of studio-based (film4 does social realism well), equally the availability of editing device such as the ipad and available software such as adobe premiere and final cut have made editing on the go far easier and made marketing more commercially available as “sneak peeks” can be released in advance.
- In distribution, the majority of films are made in digital which makes the distribution of many products far easier as a digital copy can be made instead of a reel – easier for global release, easier to encrypt the data.
- Conversion of digital screens
4. The significance of the proliferation of hardware and content for institutions and audiences.
- The improvements in technology have meant as less clear audience consumption rate – for every box office ticket counted, it is harder to see where the other copies are being consumed.
- The impact of having the same product available on several different platforms means easier consumption but less easier to judge the amount of viewers.
- Cinema still fronts the majority of new technology e.g. 3D films and markets itself as a ‘viewing experience’ rather than just watching a film. Equally independent cinema are finding other ways of showing media products such as opera, football and theatre.
- People expect to have more of a relationship with their films across media platforms such as trailers, youtube extras, interviews etc – more must now be spent on marketing – Dyer’s star theory – audience want to know their actors
- Portable devices now means media consumption can happen anywhere to anyone – difficult to judge
- Consumers can do have more control of what, when and how they consume their media – which means producers have to work harder to gain audiences and consumption
- Production costs in film budgets are now smaller than distribution/marketing costs as content is prolific but the devices of viewing are just as prolific
- Films are now being made in different style for different genres and different audiences e.g. social realism vs fantastical special effects, realistic animation vs cgi vs hand-drawn animation – long tail theory
5. The importance of technological convergence for institutions and audiences.
- The availability of internet anywhere can now make the making , distribution and maketing of film immediately visible to the consuming audience – facebook, twitter, footage, youtube, trailers etc.
- Companies taking advantage of their other interests to exploit their other products (e.g. film4 and c4 tv shows/films cross pollination)
- The importance of online work (streaming, marketing, appeal to audience through email/social network)
- The ability of new technological device to perform multiple tasks which make the making of media products faster, more accessible and
- These devices also make it easier to update audiences on the progress of the film and generate more hyper and appeal.
6. The issues raised in the targeting of national and local audiences (specifically British) by international or global institutions
- A more diversified audience now means more diversified films – look at the different markets film4 goes for.
- British films often have difficulty in American markets due to content or approach
- Now more of a ‘global’ market
- Dominance of American companies means it is difficult to be independent – relying on independent cinemas to show their product restricts their product to the bigger, student-oriented cities e.g. London, Cambridge etc
- British companies often need synergy to market their product beyond a local audience
- Proliferation of different films for different consumers – long-tail theory – aiming wholly at a niche audience is often more beneficial for a smaller, British company.
- Britain shares language with America – makes it easier for cross pollination, equally Britain and India share cultural apsects
Certain times of the year for showing certain products
Questions
“Media convergence is simply a response to the rise in digital technology” How far do you agree with this statement, referring to a media area you have studied.
"How has synergy and media convergence affected the products within a media area you have studied?"
"How have the changes in digital technology affected an institution you have studied?"
"How have changes in audience behaviour affected a media area you have studied?"
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